Tourism

Global warming is arguably the biggest challenge that mankind has ever faced. Complexity in managing and dealing with the effects of global warming is derived from the fact that it is a result of human activities. There are various dimensions that have been adopted in seeking to determine the effect of climate change on mankind (Sekercioglu, Schneider,  Loarie, 2008). However, there are few studies that have actually taken a keener look at the effect of climate change on tourism. The importance attached to tourism as a foreign exchange earner and a tool for improving quality of life has in few occasions been conceptualised as one of the dimensions through which climate change affects mankind. This paper seeks to determine the effects of climate change on tourism and the alternative that destinations have in the combating any undesirable outcomes. Avenues through which awareness on the effects of climate change on tourism can be developed are also explored by the paper. This paper is important in highlighting the effect that climatic change particularly global warming has on tourism.

Global Warming
Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases at rate that cannot be effectively managed by the natural atmospheric cycles has led to an alarming increase in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Princiotta, 2009). Scientists are of the view that the 0.8 degree Celsius rise in the average earth surface temperatures since the industrial revolution can to a large degree be attributed to high levels of carbon emission (Princiotta, 2009). The main challenge in addressing global warming is the fact that it is highly tied to human activities. Use of fire, use of petroleum, industrialisation and even cutting down trees which are some of the causes of the high levels of carbon dioxide emission and presence in the atmosphere are all a result of the activities of man. The energy and general production sector play central roles in the high levels of carbon dioxide emission (Sekercioglu, Schneider,  Loarie, 2008). Another issue that comes out clearly is that the failure of the government to address global warming as an issue of critical importance to the future of human kind is worsening its manifestation despite considerable awareness on the problem. The use of petroleum is on the increase and so is the level of industrialisation in developing nations. This implies that the rate of carbon emission is likely to increase. The anticipated increases in the levels of global carbon emission would quicken global warming and its effect on man.

Though there has been an increase in awareness on the potential threat that man faces as a result of global warming, the problems has not been adequately addressed. The existence of awareness on global warming and general change in climate does not shield mankind from the negative effects of the phenomenon considering that the rates of carbon emission are skyrocketing. According to the World Resource Institute, the levels of carbon emission within any nation can be determined by the gross domestic product per capita, carbon dioxide intensity, energy intensity and the population (Princiotta, 2009). Under this consideration it is not surprising that China and the US are considered to be the world leading polluters (Sekercioglu, Schneider,  Loarie, 2008). A critical review of the variables that can be used in estimating or predicting  the levels of carbon emission reveals that developed nations are likely to produce higher levels of carbon emission that their developing counterparts. A critical review of tourism trends globally show that a large proportion of tourists in both developed and developing nations are from the developed nations. This implies that the home nations to the highest proportion of tourists globally are playing key roles in propagating global warming.

There are few studies that acknowledge the potential effect of global warming on the tourism industry. The tourism industry is a major foreign exchange earner in both developing and developed nations. Nations like Kenya and Tanzania to a large extent depend on the tourism industry to support their economy. The failure of the tourism industry irrespective of the cause in such nations results in immeasurable suffering to scores of people. It is noteworthy that there is a general tendency to over depend on tourism in nations that are blesses with natural attractions (Cooper, 2008). This is quite similar to the overdependence displayed by nations like Sudan on oil despite the knowledge that it is a non renewable resource. Though organisations like the IMF and the World Bank have desperately tried to ensure diversification of such economies, they have desperately failed (Pleumarom, 2007). Overdependence on specific industries place nations at risk of failing economies due to failure of specific sectors. This is likely to be the case in most developed nations that depend on tourism to support their economies.

Though the levels of dependence by developed nations on the tourism industry is considerably low due to the levels of diversification that define most developed economies, tourism nonetheless contributes considerably to such economies. It is noteworthy that nations like Switzerland that are defined by high standards of living and stable economies are considerably dependent on the tourism industry. This implies that the failure of the tourism industry could considerably affect their economies and though this may not necessarily translate to immeasurable suffering of its population as would be in most developing nations the effect is notable. Therefore, though there has been little mention of the direct and indirect impact of climate change and global warming on the tourism industry, it is quite evident that it would affect human life and economic performance by a large number of tourists.

Effects of Global Warming on Tourism
Tourism promoters in bids to increase the number of tourists that visit specific destinations have used slogans like visit the last paradise before they are destroyed by tourists. However, the reality of the destruction of some of the greatest and amazing attractions has yet to dawn on most people. Recent studies show that the future generation may only have the internet and other information archives to relay to them the last wonders of the world (Pleumarom, 2007). A large number of popular tourist attractions all over the globe are succumbing to the effects of global warming at alarming rates. Studies show that the Kilimanjaro which houses the highest point in Africa at its peak may never look the same as the glaciers and snows are disappearing at rates that are nothing but alarming (Pleumarom, 2007). Other natural attractions that may lose their appeal as a result of unchecked levels of global warming include the Meso-American reefs. These Caribbean coral reefs are threatened by a three-fold environmental disaster as a direct result of global warming. It is noteworthy that global warming results in increase in the water temperatures which disrupt the growth of the coral reefs secondly, the acidic water resulting from high levels of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere considerably affect the corals ability to develop new skeletons and lastly the increase in the intensity of hurricanes due to increase in sea levels break up the corals (Pleumarom, 2007). Though the Caribbean Corals have been highlighted as being highly affected by global warming, there are a number of coral species and marine animals that are faced with extinction if the levels of global warming are unabated.
Another sad case of amazing scenery going under water as a result of the rising sea levels can be seen in the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. Many tropical islands that form the Indian Ocean archipelago may be submerged in the next twenty years as a result of heavy storms and the rising sea levels (Pleumarom, 2007).

Traditional ski resorts in the alps for instance the Kitzbuhel in Austria may disappear from tourists destination of choice list within the next two decades due to lack of their main appeal snow (Pleumarom, 2007). While most studies have focused on marine life, those that have centred on wildlife reveal that a large number of unique animal species that have for years been threatened by poaching and human activities have a new potent threat in global warming. Species that have for years attracted tourists in hordes such as the Wildebeest in East Africa, the Monarch butterflies in Mexico and the Mountain gorillas in Rwanda and Uganda are at the brink of extinction due to the effect of global warming (Pleumarom, 2007). The survival of many unique wildlife species has been put in jeopardy as a result of the effects of global warming on migrations patterns, habitats and breeding grounds. While these can be considered a risk to the survival of the species, it also affects the tourists value of spectacle associated with the animals. The Wildebeest migration which has for years been an attraction to tourists in both Kenya and Tanzania has changed patterns making it very unpredictable. This implies that there are few tourists that actually get to watch the migration of Wildebeests which affects the earnings made by the host nation.

 SEQ Figure  ARABIC 1 Wildebeest Migration
Though global warming has generally been approached as an issue that affect the survival of mankind and plummets healthcare cost, it is evident that its effects is far much wider than man has been willing to accept. Even though awareness on the effects of global warming and climate change on wildlife can be developed with effective communication systems and increased research, there is little that can be expected in terms of a concise and effective course of action (Hall,  Brown, 2006). It is noteworthy that though global warming has been labelled a threat to the existence of man this has done little to ensure that it is tackled as an issue of critical importance to the existence of man. If global warming as a threat to the existence of man has been handled with lack of seriousness, what would one expects of its address as a threat to marine life and wildlife (Cooper, 2008). It is thus evident that the key challenge in addressing the threat posed by global warming and climatic change is shifting the perception that man has of global warming. Without proper articulation of the imminent threats that man is placing wildlife and himself on, there is little hope for effective corrective systems.

Though the importance of climate to tourism may pass unnoticed, it is arguably one of the variables with the largest universal effect on different types of tourism. Ecotourism, leisure, winter sports and nature tourism are highly affected by climatic conditions. The existence of solid snow is a requirement for any form of winter sport. Global warming has come up as the greatest threat to the existence of winter sports. The tourism industry at a global and local level has been slow to respond to the effects of climatic change on the tourism industry. However, with the effect becoming clear by the day, it is only a matter of time before it become impossible to ignore the effects of climate change on the tourism industry.

The UN World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) declared in 2003 that climate change is a priority issue in tourism. Though tourism generates nearly 10.4 of the world GDP, it is one of the industries that contribute minimally to global warming (Hall,  Brown, 2006). However, the effect of climate change on tourism makes it one of the leading threats to one of the fastest growing and largest industry in the world. Though the declaration is a reflection of an increase in awareness by policy makers and industry leaders on the seriousness of the threat posed by tourism, this is only a flicker of light in an otherwise dark tunnel. Setting an agenda on the effect of tourism may be an important fast steps in rectifying the conditions though this may not be adequate considering that the manufacturing sector had taken this step with minimal strategic changes and measures. Since the UNWTO is considered to be influenced by the business council which pushes for the interest of powerful tourism  industry related corporations, the declaration may be evidence of the effects that global warming has so far had on the performance of industry pacesetters. Though there has been little mention of the effect of tourism on climate change, the UNWTO acknowledges that the consumption of fuel fossils by tourism may in fact be a platform through which tourism is contributing to global warming. It is however noteworthy that the contributions of tourism to global warming are negligible if compared to that made by the agricultural and manufacturing sector.

A multidimensional approach to dealing with the effect of global warming is necessary. Strategies at the industry, national and international levels are required to face the challenges presented by changing climatic conditions and avert future consequences. It is noteworthy that global warming is a universal problem and therefore the solution to the problem requires the inclusion of all players within the society. Simply, the tourism or the manufacturing sectors are not the only contributors to greenhouse gas emission and their solo efforts are simply ineffective in addressing global warming. It is however noteworthy that though the contributions made by the tourism industry and its stakeholder to addressing global warming may be minimal the existence of such efforts develops a basis for larger efforts. Cooperation between industries and nations to address global warming as an issue of social significance is critical and is one of the areas that current efforts are lacking in. It is noteworthy that the melting of the icecap in the Kilimanjaro is a result of global warming that has little to do with underdeveloped industries within Tanzania. However, the effects are felt by the local Tanzanians and tourists. Clearly, the effects of global warming are universal thus the need for adoption of a universal approach to its address.

The burgeoning global ecotourism sector has started feeling the heat associated with global warming. In a UN conference in Oslo, it was agreed that global warming is a factor that considerably affect the resources that form the bedrock of ecotourism. Indigenous people and wildlife across the world are affected by global warming which negatively affects the potential of ecotourism (Hall,  Brown, 2006). Effective leadership and strategies within the ecotourism sub-sector are required to minimise ecotourism carbon footprints thereby reducing its contribution to the global warming problem. Increase in awareness by the tourism industry on the effects of global warming is an important step that should be coupled by the adoption of effective practical strategies. Understanding the factors that are driving the increase in interest by tourism stakeholders is important in highlighting and pulling interest to global warming as a threat to tourism.

Factors influencing Increased Interest in Global Warming
The factors driving tourism in the modern society can be derived from the commercial value associated with all forms of tourism. Any factor that considerably affects the cost associated with operating in the tourism industry is likely to pull the interests of tourism stakeholders. Tourism industry stakeholders tend to take a more objective approach to issues that considerably affect the sustainability of tourism as money making venture (Cooper, 2008). Another aspect that is likely to pull the interest of different stakeholder within the tourism industry is variables that affect their reputation. Tourism is predominantly a services industry which serves to highlight the importance placed on the development of a good reputation. Engaging in operations and activities that are viewed as beneficial to the community and to the environment is a critical requirements within any tourism sub-sector and helps develop a larger and stable market base.

Economic Variables
The fickle and uncertain nature of tourism as an industry has always been one of the areas pointed at by critics as straining its development. Critics have a strong basis in their assertion that the tourism industry is highly sensitive to bad news and negative events. The September eleventh bombing and the SARS flu are example of recent events that affected the tourism activities within the nations that were worst affected. It is noteworthy that though the 2004 Tsunami and the New Orleans bound hurricane Katrina caused immeasurable damage to the existing infrastructure, the losses recorded by the tourism industry include the cost of tourists staying away from the affected destinations and the costs involved in promotional activities aimed at pulling tourists back (McCool,  Moisey, 2009). Presenting climate change effects in measurable economic figures can easily pull the interest of industry players to addressing this problem. Global warming has so far been dressed as a problem to environmentalists and manufacturing firms that contribute immensely to propagating the problem. However, a review of the practical environment and the nature of tourism clearly show that this assumption is erroneous and does not clearly bring out the danger and risks posed by global warming to the tourism industry (Gssling,  Hall, 2006). Researchers should look at the financial risks associated with global warming and present it in a manner that can easily be understood and related to by the tourism industry stakeholders. Such a move would attract the interest of various industry stakeholders and practical changes in the treatment of climate change within the tourism industry may be visible soon. Establishment of risk management taskforces and mitigation measures is also expected in a case where a threat is deemed to have a considerable economic impact on the tourism industry (McCool,  Moisey, 2009).

High level corrective measures such as development of policies that allow the tourism industry to offer mitigation and adaptation measures aimed at reducing the costs associated with visiting areas affected by climate-change-related problems may also be adopted as a result of increased appreciation of the economic impact of global warming. It is noteworthy that global warming is associated with an increase in viral and bacterial activities that increase the risk of infection. The increase in prevalence of malaria in Africa is particularly blamed on the effect of global warming that has widened the geographical region in which the disease causing pathogens can survive (McCool,  Moisey, 2009). Presentation of such information in a financial or economic language that is easily understood by strategists and policy makers may help refocuses efforts by the tourism industry to addressing global warming as an issue that affects the industrys profitability. The case of Fiji which is suffering from storm surges and flooding, erosion, transport and communication interruption and reduced water availability due to the direct and indirect effects of global warming is an example of a case where global warming can result in increase in insurance premiums (Pleumarom, 2007). Developing clear linkages between global warming and operational risks and working capital requirements in a setting by a tourism firm helps in developing a clear image of its impact on the tourism industry.

Corporate social responsibility and Reputation
The other dimension through which global warming can be repackaged as an issue that is of critical importance to the tourism industry is highlighting it as an issue that affects the reputation of specific firms. Commercial jet planes globally generate as much carbon dioxide as human activity in Africa within a year (Gssling,  Hall, 2006). Though this may appear irrelevant to the tourism industry at first glance, a keener review reveals that the growth within the tourism industry is playing a role in the increase in volume of flights which is to blame for the increase in the carbon dioxide emission by the aviation industry. From this perspective, it is evident that the aviation industry plays a role in the development of the tourism industry and could to a large extent determine its failure or eventual collapse. Such news has led to considerable change in perception by frequently flyer to the extent that some in Europe consider flying for holiday immoral.

Therefore reputation and corporate social responsibility in the tourism industry and in supporting industries considerably affect the performance of specific firms and the profitability of the industry (Gssling,  Hall, 2006). Increased awareness by industry players on the implication that global warming has on their reputation can affect their approach to addressing global warming. In societies where there is elevated awareness on global warming, tourism industry players are more likely to take on active steps to address global warming as a CSR issue so as to develop their reputation. Moreover, in cases where the reputation of supporting industries for instance the aviation industry is affected by global warming, there is likely to be increased cooperative efforts by both industries to address global warming (Gssling,  Hall, 2006). Such cooperative efforts are more effective and result in creative and innovative measures that are efficient in addressing global warming.

Developing awareness on the importance of global warming among tourists both in the source markets and destination may also help in addressing the problem. An increase in awareness by the market on global warming places pressure on the tourism industry players to adopt strategies that are friendly to the environment. Such efforts can only be effective if the government, the mass media and the education system all join efforts to create awareness on the role of tourism and associated industries in propagating global warming. It is noteworthy that awareness by the market provides a platform via which CSR strategies that focus on addressing global warming and climate change can have an effect on the reputation developed by a firm.

The tourism industry is directly affected by global warming. The existence of natural attractions and profitability of certain forms of tourism for instance winter games tourism and skiing are directly threatened by global warming and climate change. A critical review of tourism reveals that its contribution to global warming is both indirect and direct. Though there is evidence of increase in awareness of the potential threat posed by global warming on the profitability of the tourism industry, there are few practical strategies that have so far been instigated by the tourism industry stakeholders. This state has to be corrected through increasing appreciation of the impact of global warming by industry players. Presenting global warming and climate change as issues that affect the reputation of firms is likely to pull their interest in addressing global warming. The rationale in adopting this approach in researching global warming and presenting its effect on the tourism industry is derived from the fact that the tourism industry is highly commercialised thus there is high emphasis on profitability and developing a positive reputation via CSR. Addressing global warming as a CSR issue requires collaboration between the tourism industry and supporting industries which may help improve their global warming mitigation strategies. However, pressuring the global tourism industry into adopting global warming mitigation measures as CSR strategies is only possible if the mass media, the educational system and the government take on central roles to increase awareness on global warming including statistics on industries that are propagating the problem.